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EDUCATION
The
training of the children to virtue should commence well before the age
of five
This
is a conference given by the Dominican teaching Sisters during a Parent’s
Meeting at Saint Dominic School, in Post Falls, Idaho, U.S.A., in December
2000
Saint
Dominic School in Post Falls. We see the Church, and the school main
building.
In
the education of children, both the family and the school must make
sure that they base their education on the laws of nature and grace,
and on the principles of the Church, not on personal opinion, personal
experience, personal preferences, which can but lead to narrow-mindedness,
subjectivism, independence with respect to these laws of nature and
grace, and actually into errors of judgement fraught with drastic consequences
upon the future of our children. It is very necessary that in all the
decisions they make in this field of education, both the family and
the school strive to conform to the right principles as they are handed
over to us by the Church, by two millenniums of the life of the Church,
by the teachings of many a Pope, in short, by the wisdom and authority
of Holy Mother Church who is in charge of educating, directing and guiding
us, and to whom therefore we owe a profound obedience. So many mistakes
in education come from human pride, under its form of the spirit of
independence. But then the children are misled; that is, they are led
unto wrong tracks, wrong efforts, wrong convictions, narrow-minded Catholicism,
individualistic understanding of Christian life, wrong scale of values.
Now let us not think that we are immune from these deviations, or at
least from the danger to give in to such deviations. Nowadays all of
us are so immersed in a very liberal world, whose characteristic is
this spirit of independence with respect to any law, any authority,
that we easily, perhaps unconsciously, nevertheless truly, tend to judge
all things according to what we think, without being concerned enough
about whether our thinking is right or wrong. We easily neglect to refer
back to objective truths, objective principles, as well as to the unquestionable
authority of the teachings of the Church. And it is serious. For education
is not arbitrary. Education canNOT be arbitrary. None of us created
human nature! Therefore, the First act of intelligence on our part must
be an act of humility: to acknowledge God as being our Creator and our
Redeemer; hence will naturally arise a spirit of submission to what
He has done, to His intent in creating man, and to His Church; which
spirit requires, along with true humility, a desire to know, an inquisitiveness
about the laws God has inscribed in nature and grace. Such a frame of
mind is absolutely prerequisite of anyone for his own intellectual and
spiritual progress, in truth, and all the more of every one in charge
of educating children; that is, parents at home and teachers at school.
Now
why do I bring up this point in the introduction for tonight's conference?
It is for a twofold purpose: first, to state, once again, that all the
principles which guide our task at school are based upon our entire
submission to these laws of nature and grace and to the teachings of
the Church. The second purpose is to beseech you, for the love of Our
Lord, and for the love of your children, to be ready to revise some
of your opinions, or even convictions, if by listening to the points
we are going to bring up tonight, you discover some wrong, some deviation
in your thinking or acting. Each and every one of us must always have
the humility to think to himself: maybe I do not think perfectly right,
maybe I do not know well, or do not always do what is best: I had better
check. And then we can make progress. And we all have to keep making
progress. And we do have teachers, we do have masters, we do have objective
criteria defined by centuries of Christianity. We are not helpless.
It is only when we place our trust in our own so-called wisdom, without
being concerned with its perfect conformity to the wisdom of the Church,
that we become helpless, because we shut ourselves up in our own petty
subjectivism which is a constant source of blindness, of error in our
appreciation of things, of life, of good and evil, This is why it is
so necessary that our children learn, in order to come to know the truth,
and to become able to live good lives. This is why their studies are
inseparable from their spiritual growth.
Tonight's
conference will attempt to provide you with some principles and practical
means by which you will be able to help your children better understand
the necessity of learning, of becoming cultured, of taking great strides
on the right path, of acquiring strong virtues, in order to mature properly,
and to become saintly women, truly capable of fulfilling their providential
mission as women, either in the home or in a convent, according to their
vocation.
Here
is the outline we will follow.
I.
Education is a training to virtue. The general principles about it.
A ‑ The necessity to develop good habits.
B ‑ The major role of reason.
C ‑ How use does breed a habit.
D ‑ The training of the little ones to virtue.
E ‑ The law of progress is interior and personal to every child,
every individual.
II.
How the family and the school should combine their ef forts' to achieve
this training to virtue. Very practical part, which will bring up many
practical points.
A ‑ School is part of the family life
B ‑A few major points concerning the training of theintellect.
1 ‑ How do we come to know
2 ‑ Training of the imagination
3 ‑ Training of the memory
4 ‑ Training of the intellect
5 ‑ Necessity to develop intellectual virtues
III.
A few words about the major role played by three virtues in the education
of children; that is, prudence, temperance and fortitude.
A.
Necessity to Develop good habits.
1
– “Man is born with a splendid array of powers. [3]
No other creature on earth is so highly gifted as he. No other living
thing even begins to approach him in the range of his performances.
Yet, he is quite helpless at birth; so helpless, in fact, that if someone
were not present to watch over, nourish, and protect him, he could hardly
survive. We should never suspect him of having reason and will, if we
had to go by the kind of outward behavior he exhibits. He is clumsy
and awkward, ignorant and uncultured. He has no knowledge to speak of,
and no consciousness of right and wrong. As far as appearances go, he
is merely an animal and a very immature one at that. His worth lies
in his promising future rather than in his present accomplishments.”
2.
– “What is it, then, that turns the weak and puny child into a well-
bred and well-rounded man? What force or energy gives his powers that
grace and ease, that assurance and command which we so much admire in
the full-grown person?
The
secret of such perfection, of course, is habit.
What
is a habit? It is a permanent quality which enables us to act in a way
that is not only prompt and skillful, but full of zest and pleasure
as well.”
The
new school chapel, of roman provencal style.
Our
being is endowed with powers like intellect, will . . . which we are
meant to develop, thanks to good habits. “A power is a property, and
therefore a part of our natural endowment. It belongs to us as a birthright.
A habit is something that we build up by our own efforts.” For example,
our intellect is one of the "powers" of the soul. As such,
it is in potentiality to acquiring knowledge. But it is the study, the
habits of learning which little by little have it grow in science, understanding,
wisdom... This power of our intellect requires the acquisition of habits
of knowledge in order to achieve the purpose for its existence. Otherwise,
it lies fallow. This explains why one may meet children with a bright
intelligence as a given, but who lose a good part of it by their inertia;
it becomes atrophied. Whereas others, who are not as bright, at first,
do develop their average intelligence into a brighter one thanks to
their steady efforts. And the same thing with any other power of the
soul. For if “powers are the same in all men, habits differ from one
person to another. All of us have the same kind of minds, but not all
of us have the same kind of knowledge. In the same way, all of us have
the same kind of wills, but not all of us have the same kind of virtues.
Habit is the perfection of a power.” Someone who does not acquire habits
of learning does not develop his intelligence; he remains a dwarf intellectually
whereas he is physically an adult. And this is in itself a monstrosity...
about which few of the modern people really care, but from which most
of them do suffer. We will get back to this topic a bit later. “And
habit is a source of action. The seeds of habit are sown in our powers.
There they take root and entrench themselves so deeply that they seem
to fuse with our very nature.” For example, the knowledge we have assimilated
becomes part of our very nature; we use it, we keep building upon it,
and this is what allows us to take steps forward, learn more, understand
things more deeply, etc... This is why “philosophers go so far as to
describe our habits as ‘second nature’. The point is well taken, not
only because habits are close to the secret recesses of our being, but
also because they have so much to do with the way our personalities
and characters are shaped.” [4]
This
is why the work of education essentially consists in developing good
habits in the children, in other words, in training them to virtue.
3.
But before we go further into practical details of this training, we
need to bring up two other major points which we need to keep in mind
when we undertake this training to virtue:
a)
Besides the helplessness of children at birth and for a few years, due
to their state of being babies, there is the fact that all of them come
into this world being afflicted by the wounds of original sin. As a
result of original justice (the original state of grace), the reason
had perfect hold over the lower parts of the soul, while reason itself
was perfected by God and subject to Him. Now this same original justice
was forfeited through the sin of our first parents, so that all the
powers of the soul are left, as it were, destitute of their proper order,
whereby they are naturally directed to virtue; which destitution is
called a wounding of nature. In consequence of this deprivation of the
original justice, man's normal drive and desire for God are changed
into a drive and desire for temporary and changeable good. Original
sin in all of us is an ill disposition of fallen human nature. It is
a languor of nature. As we know, there are four wounds inflicted on
the whole of human nature as a result of our first parents' sin:
- Insofar as
the reason is deprived of its order to the true, there is the wound
of ignorance.
- Insofar as the will is deprived of its order to the good, there
is the wound of malice.
- Insofar as
the sensitive appetite is deprived of its order to the arduous, there
is the wound of weakness.
- Insofar as
the sensitive appetite is deprived of its order to the delectable
moderated by reason, there is the wound of concupiscence.
This
fallen state is to be taken into consideration in the training of children,
lest we make the most silly and serious mistakes. This fallen state
makes it quite clear that training to virtue will imply correction of
faults, straightening out of deviations, putting back to order our original
disorder.
b)
The other point one must keep in mind is that there is no natural
destiny for man. Man has only a supernatural destiny. His very end
is not here below. He was created in order one day to share in the eternal
beatitude of God Himself. Despite the fall, man’s destiny remains the
same, but is attainable only through Christ and His Church.
The
consequences of those principles are major:
i) We have an
unbalanced nature, due to original sin. So let us not worship our
children. They are wounded, therefore in dire need of healing.
ii) We can recover
a marvelous balance, but only in Christ, by grace.
iii) “We do not
have here below a permanent abode. Our city is in heaven.”
Hence
the necessity to bring the natural order under the sway of the supernatural
order.
Hence
this major principle that it is only through grace that nature can find
its healing.
Henceforth
grace is meant to bring about practical results in the mind, in the
will, in the heart, in the whole life, in all the details of the life
of our children (as well as ours, of course).
Please
make sure you keep in mind all these facets of the question when we
pursue our study. Let it be understood that when we speak of reason,
we will speak of right reason, subject to God... even if I do not explicitly
mention it each time (which is impossible!). Let us keep in mind that
when we speak of the natural order, we speak of it as willed by God,
and as grace is meant to rebuild it. Thus equipped we can go back to
our subject which is to show how education is a training to virtue and
how it is supposed to take place.
B.
The major role of reason.
“Not
all of man's powers are proper to himself. Those that carry on his vegetative
acts are common to himself and to the plants; for example growth. Those
that are concerned with his sensitive functions are common to himself
and the animals. Only his reason and will are strictly
human powers, but these are enough to account for the place of high
rank and distinction that he holds among earthly creatures. The key
power, of course, is reason. In greater or lesser degree, reason can
influence most of the other powers. It reaches out into all spheres
of activity” (or at least it should!). “If we condition our reflexes,
it is reason which is behind the conditioning.” (For example, the pianist,
the violinist, the craftsman...) “If we train our memories, it is reason
that lays down the rules.” (For example, you must first understand what
you try to memorize. You can remember what a subject is, only if you
first understand what it is.) “If we learn to curb our passions and
temper our instincts, it is reason that guides our conduct. If we develop
a strong will and manage to keep ourselves on the path of virtue, it
is reason that lights the way. Eventually, reason is the basis of habit.”
[5]
Now,
a good habit is called a “virtue”. Why? Virtue, comes from the Latin
‘vir’, which means ‘man’. Virtue, then, is something virile, strong,
manly, something which is proper to man alone. We do not speak of the
virtues of an animal, because an animal is not able to form habits of
this sort. Since they belong to man as man, they must flow from these
powers that man alone, of all earthly creatures, has in his nature.
Now these powers are intellect and will. Hence virtues are always connected
in some way with man's thinking and willing. This is why to act virtuously
is essentially to act according to right reason; which is proper to
man. This is why we are ‘human’ (worthy of the name) only inasmuch
as we act virtuously, that is according to right reason. “And the reason
why our intellect and will must be trained to virtue is that, among
our wide assortment of powers, only reason and will are disposed by
nature to acting in several different ways. Our reason is able to picture
things in an abstract way and is not held down to any particular truth.
But this very condition makes it all the more necessary that we train
it to think along certain lines, so that it can be made perfect in special
branches of knowledge and formed to truth. In the same way, the will
can be drawn to supreme goodness but is not held down to any particular
good. But this condition, too, imposes on us the obligation of training
it to act along certain lines so that it can become the possessor of
special kinds of virtue. As St. Thomas says, any power that is disposed
to act in different ways is in need of habit, so that it may be well
disposed to act in one particular way. Now, as human beings, we have
two kinds of excellence to achieve: the betterment of our minds; and
the betterment of our morals. The first is the special business of the
intellect. The second is the task of the will. We accomplish the first
by cultivating the intellectual virtues, the second by fostering the
moral virtues. Both the intellectual virtues and the moral virtues are
necessary if we are to grow up and reach our full stature as human beings.
And if any of our other powers are able to receive the impress of habit,
it is solely because they fall under the command of reason and will,
whose freedom they can share in a limited sort of way. This is why the
word ‘virtue’ can be even widened out to embrace even those habits that
are grafted by reason and will on our animal appetites, as we shall
see.” [6]
C. How
use does breed a habit.
The
interior of the Chapel; beauty lifts souls up to God
“Now
that we have found where habit properly belongs, let us look a little
more closely at its origin and make up”.
1. “The first
thing to be no-ted is that it usually comes into being through repeated
action. It is like the cutting of a new pathway through a virgin forest.
Only after the passing of many footsteps is it beaten down, made deeper,
surer, smoother. So, too, with the power that is acquiring a habit.
At first, there is hardly more than a scratching of the surface. But
little by little the footprints of today are added to the traces of
yesterday. Gradually a disposition to act in a certain way is brought
into being. Because a power can profit by what has gone before, it
begins to achieve a lasting story.” And this is why it is of major
importance that parents and educators be consistent in their demands
to their children. The repetition of the acts is the way by which
virtue is acquired.
2. “For virtue
is something permanent and abiding. Outside of this permanence, there
is no virtue. There may be a few isolated good acts, but there is
no virtue. The performance of one good act does not make a habit.
But there is comfort in the thought that when we strive to develop
virtues, something settled and lasting has been brought into being.
We can go to sleep at night with the assurance that it will still
be with us in the morning”.
3. “And the third
thing we observe about a habit is the way that it changes the productiveness
of a power, giving it an aptitude to do things it could not do before.
This something new which has been added is a quality, or a tendency
to behave in a certain way. By means of it, the power is able to act
with ease, promptness, and a skill that is as surprising as it is
pleasurable. What a sheer delight to watch the craftsman as he handles
his tools, or the painter as he wields his brush, or the actor as
he plays his part on the stage! What a joy to listen to an accomplished
singer or to a well-trained pianist! What a splendid inspiration to
read the lives of the great scholars and the great saints and see
how they excelled in habits of wisdom and holiness”.
4. “But these
things are not only a pleasure to behold but also a joy to possess.
For that is another mark of every good habit; it is a source of happiness
to its possessor. We have all felt the thrill of a job well done.”[7]
How important it is to realize this truth in education. What makes
a child happy is not the cookies or the toys you offer him; it is
the satisfaction of his task well done. Only the lazy, not virtuous
students, who never acquire habits of study, remain grouchy and unhappy.
As you see them become studious, and in a consistent way, you can
read the happiness on their countenance. And do not worry, they will
remain capable of appreciating vacation or recreation. But in a virtuous
way!
D. The
training of the little ones to virtue.
Since
to be virtuous is to act according to right reason, and the little ones
do not have the use of their reason until it develops little by little,
should we wait, do nothing, demand nothing, until they are capable of
understanding?
1. Some, in their
ignorance of the laws of nature and grace think so, and therefore,
do not direct their children, do not correct them under the false
pretext that they cannot understand. This is a tremendous mistake,
an error whose consequences are incalculable. For by refusing to
inculcate good habits in their children they open the way to developing
bad habits. The children will necessarily develop either one or
the other. If they are never opposed in their whims, they develop
the habit of ruling any authority, of being obeyed and served. It
is easy to see the drastic consequences of it. Begin to train a child
at five years old, after he has lived in the greatest ‘freedom’ for
the first five years of his life. It is impossible. It has become
a habit for him to be obeyed and served, it is a second nature in
him. The day his parents do deem it necessary to begin his education,
it is too late. Whatever demand they may have will appear unbearable
to that child, who so far has been used to doing whatever he wants,
to screaming as much a he wants, to intervening in the conversations
among adults without ever being put back in his place, to eating whenever
he is hungry and without any restriction imposed on his gluttony,
etc . . .
2. What is therefore
the right answer to that question?It
is that since children do not have yet the use of their reason, it
is for the parents to use theirs in order to direct the steps of their
little ones. The parents know why they will require this or that.
Their children cannot understand the ‘why’, yet they do learn how
to act virtuously, according to right reason; for the time being,
it is the right reason of their parents until theirs becomes little
by little capable of grasping some concepts. But it is very important
that parents have and oblige their children to act virtuously. And
then, later, when the children begin to reflect upon what they are
doing, what they have learnt in their childhood, they can understand
that it was right, virtuous. They will have begun to build good
habits on their powers, thanks to which habits they can already perform
‘naturally’ many a good act and enjoy a certain balance. When parents
neglect this training, they hand their children over to a deadly anarchy,
a deadly chaos; and they make the growth of their children in virtue
much, much more difficult, if not impossible. The enemies of Christ
know it; “a man is made at five years old,” say the communists; meaning
that the habits which he has acquired during his very first years
have immeasurable and the deepest consequences upon his whole life.
3. So let us
become profoundly aware of the tremendous importance of the training
of our little ones to virtue. Let us teach them to obey, to respect
adults, to think of others, to eat virtuously, to perform their small
duties, etc... Let us inculcate in them those virtues which will flourish
in them all the more easily as they will have been trained in them
from the earliest childhood. We must get them to do the right things,
and therefore we must correct them when they do wrong. Besides, it
teaches them the realism of grace; that is, how grace is meant to
permeate their very life, in having them act in a saintly way. They
do not know yet, but they are learning one of the major lessons they
have to learn: “It is not those who say: ‘Lord, Lord’, who will be
saved, but those who do the will of the Father.” It is a matter
of doing the right things, not just of dreaming of being a saint.
Education is an act, not a potentiality. It must lead the children
to act properly. Outside of this there is only illusion, but we, the
parents and teachers, will bear the responsibility for it.
4. It is mere
common sense to remember that a little child is twice helpless: first
by nature, as he cannot enjoy the use of his reason for quite a period
of time; secondly as his nature, on account of original sin, is inclined
to evil, and therefore, if left to its impulses, it will not spontaneously
always choose the good. Therefore it is evident that the parents,
long before the child goes to school, must train him to virtue from
the earliest childhood.
5. And this education
includes the training of the lower powers as well. “True, we share
our life with the plants and our senses with the animals; but our
lower powers are all more or less subject to the influence of reason.
What more natural, then, than that reason should put the impress of
habit on them! Reason can condition our simple reflexes. This makes
for better manners and greater ease of social intercourse, especially
when it has to do with the alimentary reflexes. Thus, if we continued,
as grownups, to eat, gulp, etc., as we did when babies, the strain
would be very hard on other people, and we should likely get very
few invitations to dine out. So we learn to be polite by training
these natural movements”. [8] It is good for a pig to eat as a pig. It is bad for a human being
to eat as a pig. It goes against his dignity. Even the functions we
share with animals must bear the mark of reason, on account of the
nobility of our rational soul which is the principle of life of our
entire being, at all its levels. Everything we do, at the lowest level
as at the highest must be human, that is virtuous, according to right
reason. We cannot eat like animals.
“The
power of local movement, too, can be molded by reason. Good habit of
speech, for example, manual skills, proper carriage of the body, are
among the most common fruits of intelligence. Finally, the animal appetites
are singled out in a special way by reason and made to fall in line
with the demands of a good life”. [9]
Four
Dominican Sisters, with Father James Doran
E. A
last principle about the "training to virtue" in general;
The law of progress is interior and personal to every child, every
individual.
1. This is true
of the acquisition of any virtue, therefore primarily of the acquisition
of knowledge, at the intellectual level, since the foundation of virtues
is ‘right reason’, which can be formed only through acquisition of
knowledge. As R. F. White (0.P.) wrote; “The acquisition of real knowledge
can only be an immanent growth, a gradual and interior process. No
one can do my learning for me. I do not know that x is y when all
I do is remember that my father or my teacher says so. I know it only
when I see that it follows from what I already know, when I logically
draw this conclusion from what I already know. This is why no human
teacher can do the job for me.” No human teacher can do the job for
your children. “Knowledge, wisdom, truth, cannot be imposed upon the
mind from without; they can only grow up from within. Only by the
activity of his own mind can the child convert the raw material
of sense-experience into ideas. Only by the activity and receptivity
of his own mind, can ideas be possessed, assimilated, developed, coordinated,
affirmed, denied,... The role of the teachers therefore, as well as
the role of the parents, is to cooperate with the light of reason
implanted in their children by God. They are a disposing, assisting,
auxiliary cause of the knowledge in their children's minds, as the
physicians are of our health. They can lead the children to the waters
of wisdom, but they can neither provide them nor make them drink”;
and the same rule applies to the cultivation of any virtue.
2. This means
that without the active, willing and consistent cooperation of the
child in his own education, he will learn nothing, though he may have
the greatest parents and teachers around him. Moreover this personal,
and active, and willing, cooperation is supposed to grow as the child
grows, as his consciousness and intelligence develop. This is why
our Constitutions state (a. 272):“The
child will be asked to cooperate to her own education in an active
and gradually ever more conscious way.”
3. But then you
may ask: if learning is that interior and personal process, how can
parents and educators foster this learning in their children? How
can they dispose, assist, help their children toward the acquisition
of knowledge? The first and primary task of parents and educators
is to awaken the mind, the life of the mind in their children; the
first step on that road is to encourage, develop and direct the natural
inquisitiveness of their little ones. Our mind is made to know. Its
natural tendency therefore will be to try to know. See how Often your
little ones ask questions: What is this? and What is that? and Why
this? and Why that? Do not fail to answer. This is very good, and
you must encourage, develop, and of course direct, channel this inquisitiveness.
“For, as Aristotle says:Wonder
is the mother of wisdom.
We
can never know anything if we do not ask questions. And we do not mean
only questions of the teachers or of the books, but asking questions
of ourselves, of reality, of life, of God. Where there is no surprise,
no wonder, no inquisitiveness in the face of God and His creatures,
there is no conceivable possibility of an immanent, an interior growth
of knowledge; the lessons of catechism, philosophy, history, whatever
subject, can be no more than a dead, and deadening structure imposed
on the mind from without, instead of being a vital inner response to
our inner, personal need. If excessive curiosity is a vice, the absence
of curiosity, of wonder, of inquisitiveness is intellectual frigidity,
a positive repression of the mind's natural desire to know, which can
result only in intellectual sterility”. [10] The role of the parents is major
in this respect. For long before their children attend school, during
about 5 years, parents are the only ones in charge of awakening the
mind of their children, of directing its inquisitiveness, of answering
its questions, and in depth, indeed according to their age, nevertheless
in depth. For their questions are usually much deeper than we can think
at first. And were they wrong, superficial, it is for the parents to
direct their children towards more important questions. One can see
therefore how this primary education requires the presence of the parents
at their children's side, the time spent at their side, the determination
to ‘teach’ their children, direct them, show them the path, encourage
them to take new steps, assist their growth, correct their deviations,
etc.; in one word how everything depends on the parents' activity toward
their children who are completely under their care for the first 4,
5 or 6 years of their life, these years during which the major orientations
of their life will be imprinted on them. They will be imprinted, whether
we like it or not. Whatever a child has learned during the first years
of his life has become his second nature to the point that parents who
begin to teach and train them only when they are around 5 years old,
under the false pretext that they cannot understand anything sooner,
as we already explained, these parents make the painful discovery that
their children are very rebellious against the ‘new’ directions given
them. If children have not heard of God, of Jesus, of Mary, until they
are 4 or 5 years old, then God, Jesus and Mary are strangers to them,
intruders who disturb their life! If they have not been trained to act
virtuously, they rebel vehemently against the beginning of such training
at 5 years old, training which is so opposed to the complete freedom
and anarchy to which they have been handed over from their birth and
for 5 or 6 years!
F. Conclusion.
In
conclusion to this first part, I will simply refer you back to the principle
which states that: “The family is first responsible for the education
of the children”; that is, for imprinting the beginning of good habits,
of virtues, of a well directed and ever increasing inquisitiveness in
their children. Not only in time, is the family first responsible,
but above all in influence. For man is born from his parents, and therefore
he is influenced by them in the most powerful way. It is natural. It
is in his ‘bowels’ to speak as the Holy Scripture does: the ‘viscera’.
And not only does this primary responsibility of the parents continue
when the child goes to school, but it increases with this new step.
The child will benefit from the teaching given at school only inasmuch
as his parents will this teaching, and support it, follow up on it,
and ‘oblige’ the child to correspond to it, to the best of his abilities.
We are going to consider and analyze in depth the practical aspects
of this question. "
Part II
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